Communication Skills

Steps to an Effective Interview

2007-12-12T21:53:00.000-08:00

To get the most information out of an interview — and identify the best marketing professional for your team — follow these eight steps:

Prepare in advance. Develop an approach you’ll use with all candidates. Rank job requirements in order of importance, and prepare a list of questions that will enable you to assess applicants’ talent and expertise in these areas. Be sure to include questions designed to gauge interpersonal skills and problem-solving abilities, such as “Can you tell me about an important decision you made and how you arrived at it?” or “Describe a situation in which you had to deal with a professional disagreement or conflict.”

Ask diverse questions. To assess the candidate’s work style and compatibility with your firm’s culture, vary the style of your questions. Ask closed-ended, factual ones (“How many years did you work for Firm A?”); open-ended questions (“Can you describe your major accomplishments?”) and hypothetical, job-related scenarios (“How would you handle a difficult client … ”)

Make a pitch for your firm. The interview works both ways, so be sure to emphasize the positive aspects of your company to prospective hires. Benefits such as employee recognition programs, subsidized training courses and on-site facilities such as a cafeteria or health club can all be strong selling points.

Rephrase questions to obtain complete answers. If an applicant’s response to your question is vague or insufficient, don’t be afraid to ask for the information in a different way. For example, rephrase “Why did you leave your previous position?” to “What types of opportunities are you looking for that your last job did not provide?”

Pay attention. Fight the urge to formulate your next question while the candidate responds to the last one. You need to listen attentively to pick up on bits of information that might otherwise escape you.

Write it down. Memory is unreliable, so take notes in an unobtrusive way during the interview. Don’t transcribe everything the candidate says — jotting down the highlights should be sufficient. Be sure to record your impressions along with the applicant’s responses to questions. If you’re interviewing someone for a design position, ask if they have an extra work sample they can leave behind.

Don’t rush to judgment. Try to avoid forming an opinion too quickly about a candidate. Wait until after the interview to evaluate responses and make interpretations.

End on a positive note. Once you feel you have enough information, end the interview politely. Thank the applicant for his or her time and interest, and briefly mention subsequent steps.

Non-verbal communication

2007-10-18T03:46:00.000-07:00

Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the process of transmitting messages without spoken words, sometimes called body language, messages can be communicated through facial expressions; gestures; gaze; and posture; Many include the space we use around us; object communication includes clothing, hairstyles, adornment, shoes, and other communicative props (Ottenheimer, 2007, p. 120-122), or even architecture; symbols and infographics; prosodic features of speech such as intonation and stress and other paralinguistic features of speech such as voice quality, emotion and speaking style. According to Guerrero and Floyd,2006, nonverbal communication is a subset of nonverbal behavior.

You cannot say nothing! Try to sit for one minute without speaking. Even if you are able to keep from moving you will still communicate rigidity, anxiety, or something. We are always saying something. It is important to observe and try to understand what is being communicated. In many situations people say what they think intellectually rather than what they feel emotionally.

There is some truth in the old cliche ``actions speak louder than words.'' Body language, carefully observed and interpreted, can tell a lot about what others are feeling.
Nonverbal communication is learned and practiced often on an unconscious level. We attract people by using these nonverbal signals, and sometimes those we attract (or who are attracted to us) are unwholesome. As we grow older and become more aware of ourselves we should be able to recognize and weed out the unwholesome in favor of those for whom we have an affinity.

Body language can be disguised behind a mask out of a fear of rejection. This can discourage wanted and needed relationships from developing. Those who want and need certain relationships to develop must relearn their nonverbal skills and unmask themselves in order to avoid alienation.

Nonverbal Communication:

Body Language
Body Language of Proxemics
Books by Albert Mehrabian
Center for Nonverbal Studies
Exploring Nonverbal Communication
Eye Gaze
Facial Analysis
Facial Expression
Graphic Symbols
Nonverbal Communication Links
Nonverbal Communication Research Page
Senses

Categories and Features G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:

Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.

Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.

Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.

Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.

WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR NONVERBAL COMMUNICATIONS

Some major areas of nonverbal behaviors to explore are:

*Eye contact:Eye contact, an important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate the flow of communication. And it signals interest in others. Furthermore, eye contact with audiences increases the speaker's credibility. Teachers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth and credibility.

*Facial expressions :Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits:

Happiness
Friendliness
Warmth
Liking
Affiliation

Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably and learn more

*Gestures :If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students' attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment. Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate that you are listening.

*Posture and body orientation :You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal closeness results when you and your students face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it communicates disinterest to your class.

*Proximity :Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students' space. Some of these are:
Rocking
Leg swinging
Tapping
Gaze aversion

Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too much distance. To counteract this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak.

*Paralinguistics :This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as:

Tone
Pitch
Rhythm
Timbre
Loudness
Inflection

For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in a monotone. Listeners perceive these instructors as boring and dull. Students report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices.

*Humor :Humor is often overlooked as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in college classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both instructor and student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It fosters a friendly classroom environment that facilitates learning. (Lou Holtz wrote that when his players felt successful he always observed the presence of good humor in the locker room.)
Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it's not the only crucial element. Creating a climate that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your speaking on video tape. Then ask a colleague in communications to suggest refinements.

Static Features

Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.

Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.

Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.

Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.

Dynamic Features

Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.

Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.

Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.

Effective Presentation Skill

2007-10-18T03:16:00.000-07:00

Effective Presentation Skill

APPEARANCE

*Physical
*Voice
*Language
*Humour

PHYSICAL

Dress neatly and tidily - first impressions are important.
Carry yourself in a confident and professional manner.
Eye Contact

Keep eye contact with the class. This will:

keep them alert.
make them feel that they are being directly spoken to.
make them feel part of the class.
give them confidence in you as the instructor/presenter.

Do not:

stare (intimidate).
move your eyes from side to side (distraction).
look out the window or at the clock (indicates boredom).
look only at the training aids or chalk board (this can be perceived as impolite).
look at your feet or at the ceiling (indication of nervousness or timidity).

Body Movements

Be natural - don't move around too much or too little.

Do:
move forward for emphasis (e.g. when standing at a podium).
relax when talking from behind a desk -this creates some intimacy with a group.
slowly and on occasion move from side to side to engage all parts of the class.
Gestures

Do not:

stand rigid.
march.
slouch.

Gestures

Do:
use meaningful and appropriate gestures to make a point.

Do not, or at least avoid:

play with keys or coins in your pocket.
use your hands too much, touching your nose or ears and excessive coughing.
use gestures that indicate you are washing your hand of a situation or wringing your hands because of frustration.
use a praying gesture as some may find this offensive or foot tap as this may be perceived

VOICE

Volume :Speak loudly enough to be heard.

Pitch :Use effectively to convey meaning

Rate :Speak more quickly to convey enthusiasm.

Do not:

*speak so quickly that no one can understand.
*speak so quickly that materials are glossed over rather than well explained so that they are understood.
*speak so slowly that people become bored or drowsy.

LANGUAGE

Avoid "pet" expressions (e.g."O.K.","Like", "You know").
Do not use profanity.

Tip: Write down your pet expressions on an index card and have a colleague mate point out when you use those or others which you should add to your list.

HUMOUR :Use humour but only appropriately

GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING A FORMAL PRESENTATION

INTRODUCTION
Purpose: The purpose of the introduction is to define the objective of your presentation, motivate your audience and outline what is to be covered.

O = Objective (State what you hope to achieve in your presentation)

M = Motivate (Get people involved at the outset)

O = Outline (What is to be covered)

BODY

Purpose: The body is the most important part of the presentation. The body should cover the essential information, provide examples, and allow for discussion and clarification. What should the body include?

*teaching points
*examples
*exercises, if appropriate
*periodic reviews
*opportunities for discussion or questions for discussion

Conclusion
Purpose: To summarize the body in light of the objective, make a concluding statement and stimulate further thought and action.

CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING A PRESENTATION

Time
The length of the presentation may vary depending on information to be covered, time available, and the interest and attention span of the target group (clients).

Time Blocks
The length of time you plan to spend on each part of your presentation should be noted on your document to keep you on track.

Content Coverage
The extent and level of content coverage will vary by target group (clients).

Target Group Level
The level of language used and complexity of content coverage should be adapted to the target group. (clients) i.e. cadets, staff, school children, etc.

Method of Instruction
Typically presentations are done through lecture. However, the methods you can use are only restricted by your imagination. Again, the methods you choose should be consistent with the nature of the target group and the amount of time you have.

METHODS FOR PLANNING EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONS

Methods:
Lecture, demonstration/performance, role plays, videos, slides, group work.

Training Aids:
You should note where the aids you will use are located in your presentation on your document to keep you on track. e.g. cartoons, graphs, quotes, actual equipment, examples, films, samples, charts, manuals, books, newspapers, statistics, audio/visual equipment.

References:
If the presentation is geared toward motivating interest in the subject matter covered, you may wish to provide a list or a bibliography of additional readings, materials, experts (partners), which or who can enhance understanding of the issue.

DISCUSSION LEADING

Advantages of discussion leading

*Gets participants involved in their own learning.

*Lets an instructor know what participants know about a subject and how they feel about it.

*Taps into the knowledge and experience of a learning group, thus making good use of them as a resource.

*Helps an instructor avoid lecturing participants on subjects they already know about.

*Helps participants retain knowledge better than a lecture would .

Disadvantages of discussion leading :

*Requires more skill from an instructor than straight lecturing.
*Takes more time than a lecture to cover the same amount of material.

What an instructor must do before the discussion:

Set the stage for a good discussion.

The discussion group should consist of no more than 25. If it is larger, consider establishing sub-groups for discussion.

Participants should be seated in a manner that will promote discussion. Ideally, they should all see one another easily. Avoid having people sitting in rows, if possible.

Consider the level of knowledge of the group. In order to discuss, members of the group need to have some knowledge of the topic.

Consider when this discussion period occurs. Is it early in the morning or late in the afternoon? This may affect their energy level.

Consider the previous experience of this group. If this is the first time they are asked to discuss something, they may need some prompting. If they have participated in many discussions very recently, they may have become bored with the technique and not wish to participate.

Consider how comfortable the members are with the group. If the group is new, members will need some time to get used to one another and may feel uncomfortable discussing certain sensitive topics. If the group is well established and cohesive, discussing any topic should not be a problem.

Guide the discussion:

Generate multiple responses. Don't simply accept the first correct answer and move on. Encourage other responses ("Good, what else?" "Good, another example?" "How about this side of the room?").

Be flexible. Use only those prepared questions that you need to move the discussion to each key topic. You may not need them all if the discussion moves in that direction naturally. Accept that the order in which they come up may be different from the sequence you had envisaged.

Observe participants' non-verbals. When you see confusion, disagreement or attempts to break in, use a directed question ("John, do you have a question?") or an observation ("Mary, I think you disagree") to give that person the opportunity to intervene.

Use paraphrases to ensure you and participants understand a long statement, to encourage shy participants to continue.

Use recaps to close off discussion of one topic or from one individual, follow it immediately with a question on another topic or to another participant (directed) or part of the group (restricted: "We haven't heard much from this side of the room. I'd like to hear your opinions about...").
Avoid expressing your opinion or asking leading questions that might bias opinions or make participants feel manipulated. Remember, if they don't bring out every point, you can add it later.

Be prepared to intervene with thought-provoking questions or take a challenging position, however, to stimulate thinking.

If one participant interrupts others frequently or interrupts someone who has been very quiet up until then, interrupt the interrupter to allow the first speaker to continue ("Excuse me, Joe, I don't think Susan had finished.").

During the discussion, try to sit down. This position will allow greater discussion amongst the participants.

Manage time effectively:

Anticipate how long the discussion should last and determine whether you have enough time to meet the objective.

If the discussion seems to be going off on a tangent, ask the speaker to relate what she or he is saying to the objective.

Announce to the group that there is five to ten minutes left until the end of the discussion period. Be sure to leave yourself enough time for the conclusion.

How to Control Nervousness

2007-10-18T03:14:00.000-07:00

CONTROLLING NERVOUSNESS

"People are afraid of public speaking... In fact, most say that it's their number one fear. Death, apparently, only comes second."

Most people are nervous when they give oral presentations. We've all felt it at one time or another - the sweaty palms, the butterflies in the stomach - our bodies seemingly telling us that we should not be here, doing this, in front of all these people. As a consequence, many of us avoid presentations like the plague.

Yet, the ability to verbally persuade or inform a group of people - to make effective oral presentations, in other words - is arguably the single-most valuable skill in business. Its importance, very simply, cannot be over-estimated.

How can we overcome our fears so that we can perform to the best of our abilities? In part, that's why you are taking this course; each of your instructors will give you what their experience tells them are the necessary background, techniques and exercises to allow you to overcome your anxiety. This is essential information on your journey to the mastery of presentation skills.

The basics steps to overcoming nervousness, however, are really quite simple. Visit the following sites for a solid overview of the basics.

Preparing the Presentation

2007-10-18T03:10:00.000-07:00

Preparing the Presentation

STEP 1 - PLANNING YOUR PRESENTATION

As with all communication tasks, before actually preparing a presentation you must first determine:

who is your audience? How will they feel about your topic?
In one sentence, exactly what is your main idea or topic?
what information and evidence will you be using to support your main idea or topic, and how will it be structured? (this usually means preparing an overall outline or plan).
how much time is allotted for your presentation?

STEP 2 - PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction is critical; it lays the foundation for your entire presentation. You must always: begin to connect with your audience, and to develop a rapport
get your audience's attention; demonstrate that your topic matters to THEM.
preview your main idea or topic
outline the structure of the presentation
To help you remember these four steps, think of RAMP (Rapport, Attention, Main message, and Plan). If you need more concrete examples of how to prepare an introduction.

STEP 3 - PREPARING THE BODY OF YOUR PRESENTATION

The body of your presentation is where you provide the actual information, details and evidence to support your main idea or topic. Since it has the most information to convey, it takes-up the majority of the time allotted for your presentation.

Usually there will be several sections in the body, each corresponding to one of the main points in your outline. This is where you delve more deeply into your argument, providing clear evidence, relevant examples, pertinent anecdotes and (in the case of sales presentations) strong testimonials and references. Example imagine that you were presenting an idea to a group of investors...

And remember, since there is no written record for your audience to consult, make sure that you periodically re-orient them during the body of your presentation. Ideally, you will do this both verbally (" now we'll move on to the second of my three main points...") and by using overheads. Always make it clear where you are within your presentation, and why a given section is relevant to your overall topic or idea. Otherwise your audience will lose interest, and your presentation will not succeed.

STEP 4 - PREPARING THE CONCLUSION

The conclusion is where you reinforce the main idea of your presentation in the minds of your audience. Briefly summarize the key elements of your argument or your key points, and - if appropriate - get your audience to act. Take advantage of the fact that your audience's attention level increases dramatically as you near the end of your presentation.

STEP 5 - PREPARING FOR QUESTIONS

Questions are an essential part of most presentations. They allow your audience to interact with you, or to clarify ideas, or simply to get more information.

In general, ask your audience to hold their questions until the end of your presentation. This prevents you from constantly being interrupted, and provides you with the opportunity to thoroughly make your case before having to defend it. Often, your presentation will answer many of the questions people might otherwise have asked.

If possible, prepare answers to likely questions before the presentation, and practice these. Anticipate tough questions, and prepare accordingly. In particular, be prepared to defend any assumptions that you have made. If, for example, you are assuming that 5,000 people will buy your new product in the first year it is produced, be sure that you can justify this claim if you are asked to provide evidence.

If it is appropriate, set a time limit for the question period, and stick to it. Before finishing the question period, remind people that it is almost over by saying something like "We're almost out-of-time. I can take one more quick question".

STEP 6 - PREPARING VISUAL AIDS

Visual aids (be they overheads, slides, hand-outs, models, audio or video clips) must always be simple, clear, and pertinent. Most often, they will be used to reinforce key points and sections within the presentation itself. Accordingly, they must be carefully planned and properly integrated.l

Overheads are still quite commonly used, since they are effective (particularly when they are in colour), relatively inexpensive, reliable, and easy to produce (particularly when they are created using a computer-based presentation package like PowerPoint). You will all learn something about computer-based presentation management systems during this course; they greatly simplify the process of creating and presenting various kinds of visual aids.

Regardless of how they are produced, some of your overheads should be text, or a mixture of text and graphics. These would include a visual title page (which gives introductory information like the title of your presentation and your name), and an overview page which previews your presentation's structure and main sections. The latter can be used several times during the course of a longer presentation to re-orient you audience.

Other overheads will likely be charts, graphs, tables, photos, or other image-based material, Regardless of the specific type you are using, make sure that each illustrates or underscores a main point within your presentation.

Finally, do not crowd material onto visual aids; keep them free of visual clutter. (It should go without saying that your visuals must be free of any grammatical, typographic or spelling errors.)

Remember: don't just hit the "Chart" icon on Excel and print-out a graph of some numbers 15 minutes before you give your presentation. Instead, plan which points you want to emphasize, determine which type of overhead (or other type of visual aid) will best allow you to do this, and create the clear, dynamic and colourful visual support materials that will make your presentation really stand-out.

Oral Communication & Written Communication

2007-10-18T03:08:00.000-07:00

How Do Oral Presentations Differ from Written Forms of Communication?

It seems obvious; oral presentations differ from written communication in that you are talking rather than writing. If you think about it for a moment, however, you'll realize that there are two critical points that flow from this, and which have a tremendous influence on how you prepare and deliver your presentations. If you understand these, you are well on your way to being an excellent presenter!

1 - There is no written record

Usually there is no complete written record for your audience to consult - you talk; they (hopefully) listen. This means that simple, direct presentations are best: otherwise you risk losing your audience's attention. Remind them periodically about the overall structure of your presentation, and how the information fits together. In other words, don't just present to your audience, but rather guide them through your presentation.

2 - You Must Understand and Use Non-verbal Communication (Body Language)

Remember, you are delivering your message in person, and in front of other people. This means that your message will not simply be what you are saying, but how you are saying it. In other words, you must take into account the fact that that your voice, posture, hand gestures, use of eye contact, and overall appearance are all sending their own messages, and that these have to fit with what you are saying. Non-verbal communications (body language) is critically important; in fact, lots of studies have shown that people pay more attention to how you present than what you present!

Oral Communication

2007-10-18T02:43:00.000-07:00

Communication skills include the mix of verbal, interpersonal and physical strategies needed to interact confidently and effectively with a range of audiences. A skilful communicator draws on a number of different means (e.g., graphical, visual, statistical, audio-visual and technological) to get the point across.

Definition: Makes clear and convincing oral presentations to individuals or groups. Listens effectively and clarifies information as needed. Facilitates an open exchange of ideas and fosters an atmosphere of open communication.

Why is Improving Oral Communication Important?

Many people owe their success to their ability to give good presentations and to participate confidently in discussion, despite the fact that both are initially a major source of anxiety for most of us. As with any behaviour-based skill there are those who are 'gifted', but that doesn't mean that effective discussion techniques, charismatic public speaking and presentation skills can't be learnt. Through learning the techniques you'll also develop the ability to understand how the communication process works, so that you can adjust your approach to suit your purpose. Clarity of oral communication and well-developed interpersonal skills, when interacting in a group or one-to-one, are attributes that make us more successful students, professionals and all round communicators.

The Importance of Oral Communication

Now what? What do you think that you will actually be doing on a day-to-day basis? Sitting at your desk? Working quietly at your computer? No. For the most part you will be interacting and communicating with other people, and some of the most important of this communication will be in the form of oral presentations.

Why are presentations so important in today's business environment? It's simple, really: nothing has more impact, or is quite as impressive, as a well-delivered oral presentation. Properly executed and in the right context, they can inform, motivate and convince more effectively than any other single form of communication. As a result, employers place great value on presentation skills; your abilities in this area can literally make or break your career.

For example:

Your new boss comes in to your office and says "I want you to bring the rest of the team up-to-date on the status of the flying skateboard project at this Friday's meeting. You'll have about ten minutes."

You are speaking with a potential client, who tells you that your company is on a short list of possible vendors. She suggests that you come to their office to brief several key people on the advantages of your company's products.

You are told to attend an out-of-town industry conference in order to publicly launch and explain your company's revolutionary new electric pet-grooming product.

How Do Oral Presentations Differ from Written Forms of Communication?

It seems obvious; oral presentations differ from written communication in that you are talking rather than writing. If you think about it for a moment, however, you'll realize that there are two critical points that flow from this, and which have a tremendous influence on how you prepare and deliver your presentations. If you understand these, you are well on your way to being an excellent presenter!

1 - There is no written record

Usually there is no complete written record for your audience to consult - you talk; they (hopefully) listen. This means that simple, direct presentations are best: otherwise you risk losing your audience's attention. Remind them periodically about the overall structure of your presentation, and how the information fits together. In other words, don't just present to your audience, but rather guide them through your presentation.

2 - You Must Understand and Use Non-verbal Communication (Body Language)

Remember, you are delivering your message in person, and in front of other people. This means that your message will not simply be what you are saying, but how you are saying it. In other words, you must take into account the fact that that your voice, posture, hand gestures, use of eye contact, and overall appearance are all sending their own messages, and that these have to fit with what you are saying. Non-verbal communications (body language) is critically important; in fact, lots of studies have shown that people pay more attention to how you present than what you present!

Verbal communication

2007-10-18T02:22:00.000-07:00

Verbal communication

A fact sheet briefly describing why verbal communication is important to business, types of verbal communication and capabilities, in particular observation, connecting, self-awareness, mental modeling and balancing.

Verbal communication: is when we communicate our message verbally to whoever is receiving the message.

Nonverbal communication: is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture; body language or posture; facial expression and eye contact; object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture; symbols and infographics; prosodic features of speech such as intonation and stress and other paralinguistic features of speech such as voice quality, emotion and speaking style.Intrapersonal communication: is language use or thought internal to the communicator.

Intrapersonal communication is the active internal involvement of the individual in symbolic processing of messages. The individual becomes his or her own sender and receiver, providing feedback to him or herself in an ongoing internal process. It can be useful to envision intrapersonal communication occurring in the mind of the individual in a model which contains a sender, receiver, and feedback loop.

How to Improve Verbal Communication?

Verbal communication requires the use of words, vocabulary, numbers and symbols and is organized in sentences using language. Mastering linguistic skill is not reserved for the selected few but is a skill that each and every one should develop to improve relationships and interactions.

Everyone's brain is forever having thoughts and they are primarily with words. Words spoken, listened to or written affect your life as well as others. They have the power to create emotions and move people to take action. When verbal communication is delivered accurately and clearly, you activate the mind and encourage creativity.

You create your reality with your senses, the eyes, ears and feelings and words and symbols are used to create the meanings. This is why you are encouraged to read and watch informative materials, listen to motivational audio programs and attend classes or seminars that relate to your line of work or objectives. Positive and uplifting spoken or written messages motivate and inspire.

You can do the same to inspire others. Motivation comes from within each individual but you can become the source and when your are able to affect their thinking, you can help them improve their lives.

How to improve verbal communication to help yourself and others.

*Using positive words to challenge limiting beliefs.

Verbal communication includes phrasing your words clearly and positively. Your words and the explanations you give affect thoughts and determine emotions.

Verbal communication that includes questions helps you challenge beliefs. According to Michael Hall, a belief is a thought to which you have said "yes", and you have affirmed by saying, "I believe this". It takes questions worded specifically before you can fully agree.

Your customers, children or partners agreeing and saying "Yes" to your suggestions and opinions indicate that you were able to influence and change their beliefs and thoughts from your spoken or written persuasion.

Telling or reading a story.

One of the ways to let others understand your message is by telling a story, reading a quote or telling a joke. Verbal communication through stories carries power to induce the person to relate to what you are saying or suggesting. A joke usually helps people relax more and is opened to listen to you.

The way you deliver the story can affect the thinking, emotions and behavior of the listeners. He is able to imagine the experience and will reproduce a response. A story narrated with eloquent can give hope to people who are in dire need for encouragement.

Asking the right questions

Questioning yourself or others with precise words allow for answers. It make a difference if you were to ask a "why" or a "how" question. The former gives you a lot of reasons, understandings and explanations while the later set your brain thinking for a solution, useful information and a strategy.

By asking questions and wording them specifically, you will invite a positive debate and interaction that will benefit all involved. You become a better listener and entice others to do the same. Unnecessary arguments are reduced when you are able to express yourself with great command of your language skills.

Think and prepare before you speak.

Whether you are going to speak in public, talk to your boss, spouse or children, you have to think before you utter those words. Verbal abuse happens when you express yourself without thinking and instead allow your emotions to take over.

You have to project your thoughts first in your mind or in writing before speaking them out. Doing this will enable you to prepare yourself with any objections that may arise. Thinking, preparing and imagining the most desirable outcome in your mind allow you to practice your presentation and getting them right.

Reduce your usage of verbal pauses.

Have you ever listened to how you speak and render your conversations? If you haven't and are unaware, request for someone to do so. How many times did you stop your sentences and added an "ah", "um" or "well"? You can also record your verbal communication and listen back to your style of speaking.

Too many of these will irritate your listeners or is perceived as uneasiness or uncertainty in what you are saying. In order to reduce the unnecessary verbal cues, listen to yourself and become aware of it. Then when you realize it coming, condition yourself to just a silent pause.

Avoid careless language.

Use your phrases with care. Talk and write in ways that allow for accurate description of your experience, thoughts or ideas. Don't expect people to assume and guess what you are trying to say.

Speak with specificity by avoiding words like always, never, every, or all. When you say to your spouse that he is always late when in fact he was late only twice, you are attracting an argument.

Parents like to compare their children by making statements like, "You are worse than your sister". What happens then? That will create resentment and a rebellious attitude.

"Whenever we use language, namely with the words that we use, we always do or accomplish something. Our words, sentences, syntax, etc. always accomplish and achieve specific things".

Types of Verbal Communication

*Oral
*Written
*E-mail

Types of Communication

2007-10-18T02:09:00.000-07:00

The purpose of communication is to get the message across to others. This is a process that involves both the sender of the message and the receiver. By successfully getting your message across, you convey your thoughts and ideas effectively. These thoughts and the ideas can be conveyed either by speaking to the other person or by writing it or by explaining through signs and symbols. So, broadly speaking there are three types of communication.

Verbal Communication- Communication done by way of speaking or by exchange of words is called verbal communication.

*Oral
*Written
*E-mail

Non-verbal communication- Conveying ideas or thoughts through signs, symbols, gestures or facial expressions are called non-verbal communication.

*Expression
*Expressive behaviors
*Body language

Aspects of communication

2007-10-18T01:59:00.000-07:00

Procedural Communication for performing tasks

Communication is far more than speech and writing. Most of us are unaware that we are communicating in many different ways even when we are not speaking. The same goes for other social animal species. We are rarely taught about this mostly non-verbal form of human communication in school even though it is very important for effective interaction with others. Growing up in a society, we informally learn how to use gestures, glances, slight changes in tone of voice, and other auxiliary communication devices to alter or emphasize what we say and do. We learn these highly culture bound techniques over years largely by observing others and imitating them

Procedural Communication for performing tasks

Procedural communication refers to the language and numeracy related to carrying out a task or a number of tasks. It includes giving instructions, applying and following a number of steps or procedures in order to perform and complete a task/s.

Technical Communication for using technology

Technical communication refers to the language and numeracy related to the use of tools or machines - whether simple or complex. It includes the language and mathematics involved in understanding and learning about media as well as about the function of technology and how to use it.

Personal Communication for expressing identity

Personal communication refers to the language and numeracy related to expressing personal identity and/or goals. It includes the different ways personal history, knowledge, attributes, goals and opinions are drawn on and expressed for particular purposes. It also includes the application of mathematics for individual needs such as personal finances or personal measurement.

Cooperative Communication for interacting in groups

Cooperative communication refers to the language and numeracy related to understanding the function of a group and the roles of the different members, as well as to participating in the group including establishing cooperative relationships with its members.

Systems Communication for interacting in organisations

Systems communication refers to the language and numeracy related to understanding and interacting within an organisation or institution. In an educational institution or program it includes learning about the range and design of educational choices and pathways as well as the relationship between classroom and non-classroom activities. It also involves the application of mathematics in or for institutional purposes.

Public Communication for interacting with the wider community

Public communication refers to the language and numeracy related to understanding and interacting within the wider social or community context. In an educational institution or program it includes learning about and interacting with other institutions - educational ones, those in local community or those related to employment - for the purposes of future work or study, entertainment or engagement with public interest issues. It also involves the application of mathematics in or for a public context or need. 6

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

2007-10-18T01:57:00.000-07:00

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Objectives:

.To develop effective communication skills that enable the candidates to express, speak effectively, interpersonally and in large or small groups

·To develop awareness about the communication process

·To develop effective writing skills, enabling the candidates to write clear, concise, and audience-centered business documents

·To develop effective listening skills that would enable the candidates to comprehend instructions and become an active listener

Communication

“It is a two way process of exchanging information and ideas from the sender to the receiver with the message being understood as intended by the sender”

OR

“Any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person, information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states”

Definition of communication

2007-10-18T01:47:00.000-07:00

"Any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states. Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes."

"Communication is a process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods. Communication requires that all parties understand a common language that is exchanged with each other. There are auditory means, such as speaking,singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touc, eye contact, or the use of writing".

"Communication is the process of transmission of information of an originator to a receiver by means of the use of a message that it goes from one to another across a channel".

"Means of communicating; means of passing from place to place; a connecting passage; connection".

"That which is communicated or imparted; intelligence; news; a verbal or written message".

"In simple terms, communication can be defined as actions whereby 'actors' impart information to one another.

Effective Presentations

2007-10-17T10:04:00.000-07:00

Effective Presentations : An essential aspect of any research project is dissemination of the findings arising from the study. The most common ways to make others aware of your work is by publishing the results in a journal article, or by giving an oral or poster presentation (often at a regional or national meeting). While efforts are made to teach the elements of writing a journal article in many graduate school curricula, much less attention is paid to teaching those skills necessary to develop a good oral or poster presentation - even though these arguably are the most common and most rapid ways to disseminate new findings. In addition, the skills needed to prepare an oral presentation can be used in a variety of other settings - such as preparing a seminar in graduate school, organizing a dissertaton defense, conducting a job interview seminar, or even addressing potential philanthropic sources!

Key Steps to an Effective Presentation

1.KNOW YOUR SUBJECT MATTER
While this first point may seem obvious, it is very important that you research every nuance of your subject. Read reports and look up information about the subject with the specific purpose of writing a presentation script. When examined in this light, new ideas and alternative ways of thinking often develop. The ability to present a subject with confidence directly affects your audience's impressions and will help keep their attention. This is especially important when giving a design presentation or proposal since you are in effect selling" your ideas to the audience. This applies whether the audience is a potential client or your own board of directors.

2. KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE
A small amount of research into the makeup of your audience will reap large benefits on presentation day. If you were traveling about speaking on behalf of a new construction project you would tailor vastly different presentations to an audience of engineers and a city council. You'd should also have a couple of other versions for local community activist groups. (depending on whether they're for or against the project)Before you 're-purpose' your Teamsters speech for use at the Baptist Building Fund make the obvious adjustments and then carefully review your content from the 'philosophical' viewpoint of your audience. (related to Know Your Limits Below)If a small amount of research will help you, imagine what a moderate amount will do!

3. KNOW YOURSELF (and your limits)
We all must push our limits and willingly bite off more than we may be comfortable swallowing on occasion -- this is how we learn and grow. Knowing a few of your limits, however, might avert disaster, or at least embarassment. Intimately related to Know Your Audience above, your 'limits' are just where you may or may not tread, depending on the makeup of your audience and your relationship with them.Just because the Mormons laughed when Whoopee Goldberg said or did something doesn't mean you can pull it off. The Presbyterians might think it amusing while the Baptists call it blasphemy. In fact, I'm certain the the mere mention of specific 'denominations' here will generate angry E-mail. (See also, the Devil is in the Details later on)
George Carlin, Tom Peters, Billy Graham, Al Sharpton and a host of others can get away with and even receive praise and applause for saying or doing things that would get you or me tarred, feathered, sued or booed by their respective audiences.

4. DEVELOP A THEME
All presentations, regardless of their complexity, are designed with a single purpose. Whether that purpose is to sell, educate, or for pure entertainment, state that purpose to yourself at the beginning of the development process. Keep this purpose in mind always.

5. PREPARE YOUR SCRIPT
The script does not necessarily have to be a work of literary excellence. For some, simple notes on 3 x 5 file cards are sufficient. Other presenters and presentations require a carefully composed, professionally developed script. The exact form of the script depends on the formality of the presentation, the make up of the audience and who will be presenting it.Any presentation script, regardless of complexity is like any other business correspondence. It should consist of the same four basic parts, an opening, body, summary and closing.

*THE OPENING The opening of the presentation sets the stage for what is to follow. Participants are introduced and the purpose of the presentation is stated. You should also present a VERY BRIEF summary or outline of the points to be covered. This helps keep your audience oriented properly within the framework of your script.

*BODY This is the part of the script in which the bulk of the subject matter is presented. The body of a long presentation should be separated into smaller, easily assimilated modules. Each module or sub-section should make a single point or convey one idea. These sub-sections should each have their own simple opening, body and summary.

*SUMMARY This portion should be very brief and simple. Here is your chance to reinforce the central theme and purpose of your presentation. Briefly emphasize the key points and main ideas of your script in this section.

There is an old axiom that says ... "Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you told them." This pretty well sums it up.

6.CLOSING In a well structured closing, points raised during the question and answer session (if any) are summarized and any handout material that was not required during the presentation is distributed. Handout material which emphasizes each key point or idea permits your audience to review the subject and assures that your words will remain fresh in their minds. Handout material should not be distributed before a presentation unless it is critical to the theme since it invariably leads to audience distraction.

7.SELECT THE PROPER VISUAL AIDS
With the script developed and the audience research completed, this decision should be simple. A five minute presentation to a three person audience is probably best made with handout material alone, or even simple flip charts. Larger audiences might be effectively reached by using a few simple overhead transparencies. (yes, they still have their purpose).

At a Management Graphics User group meeting around 1990 I gave the 35mm Color Slide about another ten years or so maximum as a viable profict center for most graphics productions companies. I didn't miss it by much.

The resolution, brightness and price of LCD Computer/Video projectors means that home-brew laptop based video projector presentations are now the norm.

The design workstations of the 90's running suites of complex four and five-figure software on five and six-figure computers gave way to laptops with PowerPoint and the free software that came with your three-figure digital still/video camera.

To help justify the purchase of your projector, keep in mind, most of these accept input from a TV, DVD or other video source. When not serving as a presentation tool you can have a huge-screen TV, limited only by the size of the wall onto which it's projected. (Can we say Super Super-Bowl Party?)

8. PREPARE A STORY BOARD
A story board does not have to be complicated or time consuming to prepare. Its main purpose is to give a general view of the presentation and communicate the important items to the technicians and artists who are creating and assembling the images.

You can make your story board using file cards and post- it notes, or opt for a comprehensive color story board, prepared by professional designers. Changes at the story board level are relatively inexpensive since no images have been produced. During the story board phase you can rehearse the script and easily rearrange, revise, delete from and add to your presentation. When your story board reaches final form it becomes the finished draft for your presentation. This is one of the most important design tools used to produce your graphics.

The final story board should consist of a sketch of each individual image, in sufficient detail to convey its approximate finished appearance. If more detailed instructions are needed to create an image than can be clearly conveyed on the story board, individual layout sheets should be prepared. These sheets should specify colors, formats, fonts and values for graphs and charts.

9. PRODUCE THE VISUALS
If the previous steps have been carefully followed, this can be the easiest part of preparing your presentation. With careful, timely planning, the only task remaining is mechanical process of production. The complete and accurate planning that you have done to this point assures a smooth production cycle without the need for unnecessary last minute changes. This is true whether you use Magic Markers to prepare flip charts on a newsprint pad or require a nine projector slide presentation with live video. Today's computer graphics products permit you to make changes and alterations that could not be accomplished using any other method of production. While last minute changes are possible, avoiding them can still help cut the cost of your presentation by eliminating revision and rush fees.

10. REHEARSE--REHEARSE--REHEARSE
Your final script and outline or story board permit you to rehearse your presentation even before the visuals are completed. This assures that when your final images are prepared and ready, you will be as well.

If you'd like to really test your mettle, drag out the camcorder and tape your rehearsal. Just keep in mind, no one expects you to be Winston Churchill.

11. PRESENTATION DAY
On the day of the presentation, arrive and set up early. Have spare projector bulbs and extra copies of the handout material close at hand. You have your visuals, you are well rehearsed, the room is set up and the participants are all prepared. Speak clearly and with authority. A little humor if tastefully added can help break the tension of the moment. There should be no surprises. Make certain that the audience questions have been addressed, and of course, thank everyone for attending.

12. FOLLOW UP
Check back with the attendants and participants to assure that your presentation goals were met. A questionnaire distributed at the end of your presentation can be a source of critical information for follow up calls or future presentations. Encourage the attendants to call or write with any questions that they did not get answered during the presentation.

Speaking to an Audience

2007-10-17T09:54:00.000-07:00

Speaking to an Audience "Communicate Complex Ideas Successfully"

Speaking to an audience can be fun and exciting. However, lack of preparation or not clearly defining the presentation’s goals and its audience can make even the best-intended presentation a complete disaster.

Preparation - The Key to Successful Speaking...

To ensure your presentation is effective, first determine your objective. Ask yourself

Why am I giving the presentation?
What do I want the audience to take away from the presentation?

Second, determine your audience. Their familiarity with the presentation topic will determine the level at which you present your speech.

How to Structure Your Presentation

Once you have determined your presentation’s objective and overall goal, as well as the audience, it’s time to structure your presentation. You will need to start this process by determining the length of the presentation.

Take the allotted time and break it into smaller segments, with each segment tackling a specific task (all of which reflect the overall objective of the presentation). For example, the fist segment should be the presentation introduction. In this segment, you should give an overview of your presentation, or a short summary of your speech, explaining the topic, why you are covering this topic, and what you hope to accomplish

The next segment should tackle the first item on your agenda, with the following segment tackling the following item on your agenda, and so on.

Once you have developed the introduction and outlined the following segments, spend some time thinking about the conclusion of the presentation. The introduction of the presentation and the conclusion of the presentation are the most important parts and should have the strongest impact.

Achieving Clarity and Impact

Keep your presentation short and simple. Your audience will not remember every point of your presentation, so highlight the most important parts. The longer the presentation, the higher the risk of boredom.

*When in doubt, use the “tell ‘em” structure:
*Tell them what you are going to tell them (For instance, “In this presentation I will show you…”).
*Tell them the key points, expanding and illustrating each one, clearly and concisely.
*Tell them what you have told them (For instance, “In closing…” or “In summary…”) and conclude.

Reinforce Your Message With Visual Aids

Next, consider the use of visual aids. Slide projectors, data projectors, video machines and computers should be tested out beforehand to make sure they are operating correctly and that you know how to use them.

Make sure you do not cram too much information onto any single visual. A good rule of thumb to follow is to keep each visual to six lines or less. Also, make sure any type or graphics are large enough the audience can see it clearly (from all seats) and make sure the colors used are easy on the eyes, taking into account the lighting.

A sad fact is that much of your authority will be judged by the quality of your slides - you need to make sure that their design supports the style of your message.

Overheads should be clearly marked and arranged in order beforehand. Flip charts should be prepared in advance when possible. When used during the presentation to take notes, make print large enough for all participants to see.When using these various visuals, do not turn your back to the audience. Position yourself so you can use the visuals while facing your audience.

When using these various visuals, do not turn your back to the audience. Position yourself so you can use the visuals while facing your audience.

Arranging the Room
If possible, visit the room in which you will make the presentation well in advance. Determine seating (circle seating encourages interaction, rows of seats discourages interaction, etc.) and determine how the visual aids you choose will work. Consider lighting, space, even the temperature of the room. Consider placing notepads and pencils at each seat if participants need to take notes. Or, you may want to have glasses at each seat with a few pitchers of water if the presentation is going to last more than half of an hour. If you do this, make sure you allow time for bathroom breaks.

While you do not need to memorize your entire presentation, make yourself very, very familiar with it through several practice runs. Rehearse the presentation in its entirety as often as you can before delivering it to a live audience. The more you rehearse, the more confident you will be and the more fluent you will seem to your audience - if you know your subject matter and have adequately prepared, you will be able to deliver your message loud and clear.

When in doubt or nervous, stay focused on your purpose – helping your audience understand your message. Direct your thoughts to the subject at hand. The audience has come to hear your presentation and you will succeed!

Tips and Techniques
Tips to help make your presentation a smashing success:
Avoid too many statistics and confusing information in your presentation. Instead, put this information in a handout for participants to refer to at a later date.

*If you forget your words, pause for a moment and remember your objective. While the words may not come right back to you, this will help keep you on track and may even help you to think of additional thoughts and ideas your audience will benefit from hearing.

*Visualize yourself succeeding.

*Begin by breathing.

*Before the presentation, focus on the needs of the audience.

*Take a public speaking course at a local college or university. These are oftentimes offered as night courses and are usually very inexpensive, while providing you with important skills that will enhance your confidence in this area.

*Videotape yourself going through the presentation. All you need to do this is a video camera and a tripod. Then, run through the video and make changes according to your thoughts on the taped presentation

Win-Win Negotiation

2007-10-17T09:35:00.000-07:00

Negotiation is a science that requires preparation if you are to have any chance of succeeding. To realize your part of a win-win outcome in every negotiation, identifying your project cost and profit margin is essential. Knowing these two components of a project fee will help ensure the desired outcome.

Before a client ever receives your fee proposal, most have already established a specific fee amount they are willing to pay for your services. If your proposal should exceed that threshold, you’ll have to negotiate to get your fee.

What's the best way to prepare for such a negotiation? The most critical piece of information to identify in a negotiation would be the estimated project cost, exclusive of profit, to complete the project. This figure is otherwise known as the project "break-even" cost.

You can determine this cost in several ways, and you would do well to investigate and compare the results of each method. One of the best methods is to review projects of similar type and of comparable size and complexity. If you have kept accurate project cost accounting records, you will have an excellent resource to evaluate and help you build the fee you may need to negotiate. You will need to determine the actual, final percentage of profitability for these projects to ascertain whether the fees were adequate to complete the project(s) and still earn a "reasonable" profit. Two other useful methods to define the break-even cost of project delivery are the "top-down" fee budgeting approach (for public-sector projects) and the "bottom-up" approach (for private-sector projects).

Negotiation is not a process by which you try to destroy the other party. Rather, it is a process by which you reach a certain result. Good negotiation occurs when all parties are truthful, and they connect and interact successfully with each other. Good negotiation cannot happen if either party is trying to boost their ego in the process. People can win while helping the other person get what they want.

We were born to negotiate just as we were born to walk. You may not even realize that you are negotiating when you talk to business associates, friends, children, and anyone in your communication realm. Some people think negotiation is confrontational. Good negotiation is not confrontational, and you really can negotiate “win-win” results.

Preparation is the key to being a good negotiator. If you are not prepared, you may not be able to explain the results you want, you may not be able to evaluate all the issues and alternatives, and you may give up too soon. There are certain essential steps that prepare you for the negotiation:

1) Set clear expectations and clear goals;
2) Identify any undisputed points;
3) Anticipate the counter-offers you could make or receive;
4) Know every detail and every issue;
5) Anticipate what the other party wants;
6) Decide what is the highest/lowest you will give or take; and
7) Be ready to explain why this the highest/lowest you will give or take

When the negotiation starts, state that it is your objective to reach a win-win result. Keep your goal in mind and listen carefully to what is important to the other party. Take notes if necessary. Be calm, courteous, unemotional, and relaxed. Isolate the points of disagreement and try to find solutions for each of them.

Ask “what,” “how,” and “why” questions to better understand the other person’s values and what is important to them. Continue to isolate the points of disagreement and find solutions for them. Acknowledge the points of agreement that you have reached up to this point.

Repeat the process, moving each party closer to the other until you have full agreement. If you cannot reach a result that is mutually agreeable, agree to disagree at that moment, give yourselves time to think about it, and schedule another meeting. It may take time and work, but you can negotiate a win-win result.

Negotiating Desirable Outcomes You may not realize it, but you are involved in negotiation a good part of every day. Any negotiation--whether it involves settling on the price of a product or service, agreeing to the terms of a job offer, or simply deciding on a bedtime for your children--ends in one of five possible outcomes:

(1) lose/lose, in which neither party achieves his goals;

(2) lose/win or

(3) win/lose, in which one party achieves her goals and the other does not;

(4) no outcome, in which neither party wins or loses; and

(5) win/win, in which the goals of both parties are met. It’s easy to see that numbers 1 and 4 are less than ideal, as is number 2 if you are the one who loses! But what about the other two outcomes? Isn’t win/lose just as desirable as win/win, as long as you are the winner?

The Win/Lose Outcome

In some negotiations, you will be the winner and the other party will be the loser. At first, it may seem that this is the ideal situation for you. But think about it. If you have ever lost a negotiation, you know that the feeling is not pleasant. A significant problem with a win/lose outcome is that one person walks away with unmet needs--and this person is unlikely to be willing to engage in future negotiations with the other party. Ultimately, this sets up the potential for a lose/lose outcome.

A good example of this situation occurred when I was a salesman in the printing business. I had a client who purchased printing on a regular basis. This person had a reputation for being both a shark and a jerk. Not only would he beat down my price, but he would also be rude and verbally abusive through every step of the job. For him, this may have seemed like a win/lose situation, with me as the loser. After several jobs, however, it became apparent to me that the stress of working with this individual was costing me more time, energy and grief than the jobs were worth. Eventually, I began quoting his jobs at twice the normal markup and refusing to budge on the price, changing the balance in this lopsided relationship. Of course, after a while, the client refused to deal with me, creating a lose/lose outcome.

Setting Up for Success

Since few negotiations are one-time affairs, it is usually in your best interest to work toward a win/win outcome. When both parties walk away from a negotiation with a good feeling, they will probably be willing to negotiate with each other again. Using all your skills to ensure that you and the other party feel like winners is simply good business!

Ice Breakers

2007-10-17T09:23:00.000-07:00

Ice Breakers "Getting everyone to contributeat the start of a successful event"

Ice Breakers can be an effective way of starting a training session or team-building event. As interactive and often fun sessions run before the main proceedings, they help people get to know each other and buy into the purpose of the event.

If an ice breaker session is well-designed and well-facilitated, it can really help get things off to a great start. By getting to know each other, getting to know the facilitators and learning about the objectives of the event, people can become more engaged in the proceedings and so contribute more effectively towards a successful outcome.

But have you ever been to an event when the ice breaker session went badly? Just as a great ice breaker session can smooth the way for a great event, so a bad ice breaker session can be a recipe for disaster. A bad ice breaker session is at best simply a waste of time, or worse an embarrassment for everyone involved.

As a facilitator, the secret of a successful icebreaking session is to keep it simple: Design the session with specific objectives in mind and make sure the session is appropriate and comfortable for everyone involved.

This article helps you think through the objectives of your ice breaker session, and then suggests various types of ice breaker you might use. As a facilitator, make sure your ice breakers are remembered for the right reasons – as a great start to a great event!

When to Use Icebreakers

As the name suggests, an ice breaker session is designed to “break the ice” at an event or meeting. The technique is often used when people who do not usually work together, or may not know each other at all, meet for a specific, common purpose.

*Consider using an ice breaker when:
*Participants come from different backgrounds;
*People need to bond quickly so as to work towards a common goal;
*Your team is newly formed;
*The topics you are discussing are new or unfamiliar to many people involved; or
*As facilitator you need to get to know participants and have them know you better.

So What’s the “Ice”?

When designing your ice breaker, think about the “ice” that needs to be broken.

If you are bringing together liked-minded people, the “ice” may simply reflect the fact that people have not yet met.

If you are bringing together people of different grades and levels in your organization for an open discussion, the “ice” may come from the difference in status between participants.

If you are bringing together people of different backgrounds, cultures and outlooks for work within your community, then the “ice” may come from people’s perceptions of each other.

You’ll need to handle these differences sensitively. Only focus on what’s important to your event. (Remember, you want to break some ice for your event, not uncover the whole iceberg, or bring about world peace!)And as you move on to design and facilitate the event, it’s always best to focus on similarities (rather than differences), such as a shared interest in the event’s outcome.

Designing Your Icebreaker

The key to a successful ice breaker is to make sure the ice breaker is specifically focused on meeting your objectives and appropriate to the group of people involved.Once you have established what the “ice” is, the next step is to clarify the specific objectives for your ice breaker session. For example, when meeting to solve problems at work, the ice breaker objectives may be:

“To establish a productive working environment for today’s event with good participation from everyone involved, irrespective of their level or job role in the organization.”

With clear objectives, you can start to design the session. Ask yourself questions about how you will meet your objectives. For example:

“How will people become comfortable with contributing?
“How will you establish a level playing field for people with different levels and jobs?
“How will you create a common sense of purpose?...” and so on.

These questions can be used as a check list once you have designed the ice breaker session:

“Will this ice breaker session help people feel comfortable… establish a level playing field… etc”

As a further check, you should also ask yourself how each person is likely to react to the session. Will participants feel comfortable? Will they feel the session is appropriate and worthwhile?

Example Ice Breakers

There are many types of ice breakers, each suited to different types of objectives. Here we look at a few of the more popular types of ice breakers and how they can be used.

Introductory Ice Breakers Introductory ice breakers are used to introduce participants to each other and to facilitate conversation amongst the participants.

The Little Known Fact: Ask participants to share their name, department or role in the organization, length of service, and one little known fact about themselves.

This "little known fact" becomes a humanizing element that can help break down differences such as grade / status in future interaction.

True or False: Ask your participants to introduce themselves and make three or four statements about themselves, one of which is false. Now get the rest of the group to vote on

which fact is false.

As well as getting to know each other as individuals, this ice breaker helps to start interaction within the group.

Interviews: Ask participants to get into twos. Each person then interviews his or her partner for a set time while paired up. When the group reconvenes, each person introduces their interviewee to the rest of the group.

Problem Solvers: Ask participants to work in small groups. Create a simple problem scenario for them to work on in a short time. Once the group have analyzed the problem and prepared their feedback, ask each group in turn to present their analysis and solutions to the wider group.

Team-Building Ice BreakersTeam-building ice breakers are used to bring together individuals who are in the early stages of team building. This can help the people start working together more cohesively towards shared goals or plans.

The Human Web: This ice breaker focuses on how people in the group inter-relate and depend on each other.

The facilitator begins with a ball of yarn. Keeping one end, pass the ball to one of the participants, and the person to introduce him- or her-self and their role in the organization. Once this person has made their introduction, ask him or her to pass the ball of yarn on to another person in the group. The person handing over the ball must describe how he/she relates (or expects to relate) to the other person. The process continues until everyone is introduced. To emphasis the interdependencies amongst the team, the facilitator then pulls on the starting thread and everyone's hand should move.

Hope, Fears and Expectations: Best done when participants already have a good understanding of their challenge as a team. Group people into 2s or 3s, and ask people to discuss their expectations for the event or work ahead, then what they fears and their hopes. Gather the group’s response by collating 3-4 hopes, fears and expectation from pairing or threesome.

Topic exploration ice breakersTopic exploration ice breakers can be used to explore the topic at the outset, or perhaps to change pace and re-energize people during the even.

Word association: This ice breaker helps people explore the breadth of the area under discussion. Generate a list of words related to the topic of your event or training. For example, in a health and safety workshop, ask participants what words or phrases come to mind relating to "hazardous materials". Participants may suggest: 'danger,' 'corrosive,' 'flammable,' 'warning,' 'skull and crossbones,' etc. Write all suggestions on the board, perhaps clustering by theme. You can use this opportunity to introduce essential terms and discuss the scope (what’s in and what’s out) of your training or event.

Burning questions: This ice breaker gives each person the opportunity to ask key questions they hope to cover in the event or training. Again you can use this opportunity to discuss key terminology and scope. Be sure to keep the questions and refer back to them as the event progresses and concludes.

Brainstorm: Brainstorming can be used as an ice breaker or re-energizer during an event. If people are getting bogged down in the detail during problem solving, for example, you can change pace easily by running a quick-fire brainstorming session. If you are looking for answers to customer service problems, try brainstorming how to create problems rather than solve them. This can help people think creatively again and gives the group a boost when energy levels are flagging.

Running Effective Meetings

2007-10-17T09:18:00.000-07:00

Running Effective Meetings

Meetings are wonderful tools for generating ideas, expanding on thoughts and managing group activity. But this face-to-face contact with team members and colleagues can easily fail without adequate preparation and leadership.

The Importance of Preparation
To ensure everyone involved has the opportunity to provide their input, start your meeting off on the right foot by designating a meeting time that allows all participants the time needed to adequately prepare.

Once a meeting time and place has been chosen, make yourself available for questions that may arise as participants prepare for the meeting. If you are the meeting leader, make a meeting agenda, complete with detailed notes.

In these notes, outline the goal and proposed structure of the meeting, and share this with the participants. This will allow all involved to prepare and to come to the meeting ready to work together to meet the goal(s) at hand.

The success of the meeting depends largely on the skills displayed by the meeting leader. To ensure the meeting is successful, the leader should:

*Issue an agenda
*Start the discussion and encourage active participation
*Work to keep the meeting at a comfortable pace – not moving too fast or too slow
*Summarize the discussion and the recommendations at the end of each logical section
*Ensure all participants receive minutes promptly
*While these tips will help ensure your meeting is productive and well-received, there are other important areas that need to be touched on to make sure your meeting and negotiation skills are fine-tuned.

Managing a Meeting

Choosing the right participants is key to the success of any meeting. Make sure all participants can contribute and choose good decision-makers and problem-solvers. Try to keep the number of participants to a maximum of 12, preferably fewer. Make sure the people with the necessary information for the items listed in the meeting agenda are the ones that are invited.

If you are the leader, work diligently to ensure everyone’s thoughts and ideas are heard by guiding the meeting so that there is a free flow of debate with no individual dominating and no extensive discussions between two people. As time dwindles for each item on the distributed agenda, you may find it useful to stop the discussion, then quickly summarize the debate on that agenda item and move on the next item on the agenda.

When an agenda item is resolved or action is agreed upon, make it clear who in the meeting will be responsible for this. In an effort to bypass confusion and misunderstandings, summarize the action to be taken and include this in the meeting’s minutes.

Time Keeping

Meetings are notorious for eating up people's time. Here are some ways of ensuring that time is not wasted in meetings:

*Start on time.
*Don't recap what you've covered if someone comes in late: doing so sends the message that it is *OK to be late for meetings, and it wastes everyone else's valuable time.
*State a finish time for the meeting and don't over-run.
*To help stick to the stated finish time, arrange your agenda in order of importance so that if *you have to omit or rush items at the end to make the finish time, you don't omit or skimp on important items.
*Finish the meeting before the stated finish time if you have achieved everything you need to.

Issuing Minutes

Minutes record the decisions of the meeting and the actions agreed. They provide a record of the meeting and, importantly, they provide a review document for use at the next meeting so that progress can be measured - this makes them a useful disciplining technique as individuals' performance and non-performance of agreed actions is given high visibility.

The style of the minutes issued depends on the circumstances - in situations of critical importance and where the record is important, then you may need to take detailed minutes. Where this is not the case, then minutes can be simple lists of decisions made and of actions to be taken (with the responsible person identified). Generally, they should be as short as possible as long as all key information is shown - this makes them quick and easy to prepare and digest.

It is always impressive if the leader of a meeting issues minutes within 24 hours of the end of the meeting - it's even better if they are issued on the same day.

Tip:Stop for a minute to consider the hourly cost to your organization of the people attending your meeting. You'll realise that calling a meeting is expensive, so it's important to ensure that every person attending and every minute of your meeting adds value. So don't invite people who won't participate but will simply report back to their boss or team (sending a copy of the minutes will be a more effective way of achieving this). Equally, don't use meetings to tell people things that could be communicated just as effectively by email or memo.

Active Listening

2007-10-17T09:14:00.000-07:00

Active Listening "Hear What People are Really Saying"

It is obvious to say that if you have poor interpersonal communications skills (which include active listening), your productivity will suffer simply because you do not have the tools needed to influence, persuade and negotiate – all necessary for workplace success. Lines of communications must be open between people who rely on one another to get work done.

Considering this, you must be able to listen attentively if you are to perform to expectations, avoid conflicts and misunderstandings, and to succeed - in any arena. Following are a few short tips to help you enhance your communications skills and to ensure you are an active listener:

1. Start by Understanding Your Own Communication Style Good communication skills require a high level of self-awareness. Understanding your personal style of communicating will go a long way toward helping you to create good and lasting impressions on others. By becoming more aware of how others perceive you, you can adapt more readily to their styles of communicating. This does not mean you have to be a chameleon, changing with every personality you meet. Instead, you can make another person more comfortable with you by selecting and emphasizing certain behaviors that fit within your personality and resonate with another. In doing this, you will prepare yourself to become an active listener.

2. Be An Active ListenerPeople speak at 100 to 175 words per minute (WPM), but they can listen intelligently at up to 300 words per minute. Since only a part of our mind is paying attention, it is easy to go into mind drift - thinking about other things while listening to someone. The cure for this is active listening - which involves listening with a purpose. It may be to gain information, obtain directions, understand others, solve problems, share interest, see how another person feels, show support, etc.

If you're finding it particularly difficult to concentrate on what someone is saying, try repeating their words mentally as they say it - this will reinforce their message and help you control mind drift.

3. Use Nonverbal CommunicationUse nonverbal behaviors to raise the channel of interpersonal communication. Nonverbal communication is facial expressions like smiles, gestures, eye contact, and even your posture. This shows the person you are communicating with that you are indeed listening actively and will prompt further communications while keeping costly, time-consuming misunderstandings at a minimum

4. Give FeedbackRemember that what someone says and what we hear can be amazingly different! Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. Repeat back or summarize to ensure that you understand. Restate what you think you heard and ask, "Have I understood you correctly?" If you find yourself responding emotionally to what someone said, say so, and ask for more information: "I may not be understanding you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally. What I thought you just said is XXX; is that what you meant?"

Feedback is a verbal communications means used to clearly demonstrate you are actively listening and to confirm the communications between you and others. Obviously, this serves to further ensure the communications are understood and is a great tool to use to verify everything you heard while actively listening.

Effective Email

2007-10-16T01:06:00.000-07:00

Effective Email - "How to communicate powerfully by email"

As with all written communications, your emails should be clear and concise. Sentences should be kept short and to the point.

This starts with the email’s subject line. Use the subject line to inform the receiver of EXACTLY what the email is about. Keep in mind, the subject line should offer a short summary of the email and allows for just a few words. Because everyone gets emails they do not want (SPAM, etc.), appropriate use of the subject line increases the chances your email will be read and not discarded into the deleted email file without so much as a glance.

Because emails have the date and time they were sent, it is not necessary to include this information in your email correspondences. However, the writing used in the email should liken that used is other business writings. The email should be clear and concise, with the purpose of the email detailed in the very first paragraph.

The body of the email should contain all pertinent information (see writing tips in Written Communications) and should be direct and informative.

Make sure to include any call to action you desire, such as a phone call or follow-up appointment. Then, make sure you include your contact information, including your name, title, phone and fax numbers, as well as snail-mail address. If you have additional email addresses, you may want to include these, as well.

If you regularly correspond using email, make sure to clean out your email inbox at least once each day. Of course, the exception here may be on days you do not work, such as weekends and holidays.

Make sure you return emails in a timely manner. This is a simple at of courtesy and will also serve to encourage senders to return your emails in a timely manner.

Internal email should be treated as regular email, following the same rules as outlined above. However, internal email should be checked regularly throughout the working day and returned in a much quicker manner as much of these detail timely projects, immediate updates, meeting notes, etc. Nonetheless, internal emails, just like emails, should not be informal. Remember, these are written forms of communication that can be printed out and viewed by others than those originally intended for.

Tips for Effective E-mail

*Think before you write. Just because you can send information faster than ever before, it doesn’t mean that you should send it. Analyze your readers to make certain that you are sending a message that will be both clear and useful.

*Remember that you can always deny that you said it. But if you write it, you may be held accountable for many many moons. You may be surprised to find where your message may end up. (As an example of “What Not To Do” in Ellen Dowling’s Writing Strategies class?)

*Keep your message concise. Remember that the view screen in most e-mail programs shows only approximately one half of a hard-copy page. Save longer messages and formal reports for attachments. On the other hand, do not keep your message so short that the reader has no idea what you’re talking about. Include at least a summary (action or information?) in the first paragraph of your message.

*Remember that e-mail is not necessarily confidential. Some companies will retain the right to monitor employees’ messages. (Refer to #1 and #2, above.) Don’t send anything you wouldn’t be comfortable seeing published in your company’s newsletter (or your community’s newspaper).

*Don’t attempt to “discipline” your readers. It’s unprofessional to lose control in person—to do so in writing usually just makes the situation worse.

*Don’t “spam” your readers. Don’t send them unnecessary or frivolous messages. Soon, they’ll quit opening any message from you.

*DON’T TYPE IN ALL CAPS! IT LOOKS LIKE YOU’RE YELLING AT THE READERS! Remember, if you emphasize everything, you will have emphasized nothing.

*don’t type in all lower case. (unless you’re e.e. cummings.) if you violate the rules of english grammar and usage, you make it difficult for the reader to read.

*Use the “Subject” line to get the readers’ attention. Replace vague lines (“Information on XYZ Project,” or “Status Report Q1”) with better “hooks”: “Need your input on Tralfamadore Project,” or “Analysis of recent problems with the new Veeblefetzer.”

*Take the time to proofread your document before you sent it. Rub the document thru the spell checker and/or the grammer checker. Even simple tips will make you look sloppier and damage you’re professional credibility.

Writing Skills

2007-10-16T01:00:00.000-07:00

Writing Skills - Before You Write It Down, Know This

Many people are intimidated by writing. Even so, there are times when writing is the best way to communicate, and oftentimes the only way to get your message across.

Write With Necessary Caution...
When writing, be mindful of the fact that once something is in written form, it cannot be taken back. Communicating through words can be more concrete than verbal communications, with less room for error and even less room for mistakes. This presents written communicators with new challenges, including spelling, grammar, punctuation, even writing style and actual wording.

Thankfully, today’s technology makes memo, letter and proposal writing much easier by providing reliable tools that check and even correct misspelled words and incorrect grammar use. Unfortunately, these tools are not fail proof and will require your support, making your knowledge in this area important.

The Importance of "Style"...

Some of the most basic tips to remember when writing include:

*Avoid the use of slang words

*Try not to use abbreviations (unless appropriately defined)

*Steer away from the use of symbols (such as ampersands (&))

*Clichés should be avoided, or at the very least, used with caution

*Brackets are used to play down words or phrases

*Dashes are generally used for emphasis

*Great care should ALWAYS be taken to spell the names of people and companies correctly
*Numbers should be expressed as words when the number is less than 10 or is used to start a sentence (example: 10 years ago, my brother and I…). The number 10, or anything greater than 10, should be expressed as a figure (example: My brother has 13 Matchbox cars.)

*Quotation marks should be placed around any directly quoted speech or text and around titles of publications.

*Keep sentences short

While the above tips cover the most common mistakes made when writing letters, memos and reports, they in no way cover everything you need to know to ensure your written communications are accurate and understood.

While this takes some practice, there are many sources available to assist with writing style, including “The Elements of Style”, by Strunk and White. One glance in any newsroom or on the desk of even the most accomplished writers and you are sure to find this small, easy-to-read, easy-to-understand, no-nonsense guide to writing. It is clear, concise and perhaps the best book of its kind. If you plan on writing a great deal of letters or even proposals, it is strongly recommended that you picky up this nifty guide, which by the way, will fit in your shirt pocket.

Letter Writing Hints...

When writing letters, it is best to address the letter to an individual. And, when beginning the letter with a personal name, be sure to end it with an appropriate closing, such as ‘Sincerely yours’. If you cannot obtain an individual’s name, consider ending it with a more generic (less personal) closing, such as ‘With kindest regards’.

For normal business letters, your letter should start with an overall summary, showing in the first paragraph why the letter is relevant to the reader. It’s not a good practice to make the reader go past the first paragraph to find out why the letter was sent to them.

The body of the letter needs to explain the reason for the correspondence, including any relevant background and current information. Make sure the information flows logically, ensuring you are making your points effectively.

The closing of the letter is the final impression you leave with the reader. End with an action point, such as ‘I will call you later this week to discuss this further’.

The Importance of Careful Proofing

Perhaps the most important thing to remember when writing a letter is to check it thoroughly when it is completed. Even when you think it is exactly what you want, read it one more time. This “unwritten” rule holds true for everything you write – memos, letters, proposals, etc.

Use both the grammar and spell check on your computer, paying very, very close attention to every word highlighted. Do not place total faith on your computer here. Instead, you should have both a printed dictionary and thesaurus nearby to double-check everything your computers editing tools highlight, as these tools are certainly not always reliable, for a variety of reasons.

When checking your written communications, make sure the document is clear and concise. Is there anything in the written communication that could be misinterpreted? Does it raise unanswered questions or fail to make the point you need to get across?

Can you cut down on the number of words used? For instance, don’t use 20 words when you can use 10. While you do not want to be curt or abrupt, you do not want to waste the reader’s time with unnecessary words or phrases.

Is your written communication well organized? Does each idea proceed logically to the next? Make sure your written communications are easy to read and contain the necessary information, using facts where needed and avoiding information that is not relevant. Again, outline the course of action you expect, such as a return call or visit.

Close appropriately, making sure to include your contact information. While this may seem obvious, it is sometimes overlooked and can make your written communications look amateurish. This can diminish your chances of meeting your written communication’s goals.

Better Public Speaking & Presentation

2007-10-16T00:55:00.000-07:00

Better Public Speaking & Presentation " Ensure Your Words Are Always Understood"

While we discussed many of the cues used to ensure your spoken words are understood in the previous section, there are many other things you should do to ensure that your verbal messages are understood time and time again.

Although somewhat obvious and deceptively simple, these include:

*Keep the message clear
*Be prepared
*Keep the message simple
*Be vivid when delivering the message
*Be natural
*Keep the message concise

Preparation is underrated. In fact, it is one of the most important factors in determining your communication successes. When possible, set meeting times and speaking and presentation times well in advance, thus allowing yourself the time you need to prepare your communications, mindful of the entire communication process. By paying close attention to each of these stages and preparing accordingly, you ensure your communications will be more effective and better understood.

Of course, not all communications can be scheduled. In this case, preparation may mean having a good, thorough understanding of the office going-ons, enabling you to communicate with the knowledge you need to be effective, both through verbal and written communications.

Being prepared: Guidelines for Thinking Ahead:
Ask yourself: Who? What? How? When? Where? Why?

Who are you speaking to? What are their interests, presuppositions and values? What do they share in common with others; how are they unique?

What do you wish to communicate? One way of answering this question is to ask yourself about the ‘success criteria’. How do you know if and when you have successfully communicated what you have in mind?

How can you best convey your message? Language is important here, as are the nonverbal cues discussed earlier. Choose your words and your nonverbal cues with your audience in mind. Plan a beginning, middle and end. If time and place allow, consider and prepare audio-visual aids.

When? Timing is important here. Develop a sense of timing, so that your contributions are seen and heard as relevant to the issue or matter at hand. There is a time to speak and a time to be silent. ‘It’s better to be silent than sing a bad tune.’

Where? What is the physical context of the communication in mind? You may have time to visit the room, for example, and rearrange the furniture. Check for availability and visibility if you are using audio or visual aids.

Why? In order to convert hearers into listeners, you need to know why they should listen to you – and tell them if necessary. What disposes them to listen? That implies that you know yourself why you are seeking to communicate – the value or worth or interest of what you are going to say.

Be concise. Be brief. Use short words and sentences. Where appropriate, support these with short, easy-to-understand examples, which help demonstrate your message.

Unforgettable Delivery:

Your delivery of your speech or presentation will make or break it, no matter how well you've prepared and crafted your clear, concise message. Some useful tips for keeping your presentation vivid include:

*Use examples to bring your points to life
*Keep your body language up-beat - don't stay stuck behind a rostrum
*Don't talk to fast. Less is more here too. Pauses are effective.
*Use a variety of tones of voice
*Use visual aids.

Johari Window

2007-10-16T00:38:00.000-07:00

The Johari Window is a communication model that can be used to improve understanding between individuals within a team or in a group setting. Based on disclosure, self-disclosure and feedback, the Johari Window can also be used to improve a group's relationship with other groups.

Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (the word “Johari” comes from Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham), there are two key ideas behind the tool:

*That individuals can build trust between themselves by disclosing information about themselves; and

*That they can learn about themselves and come to terms with personal issues with the help of feedback from others.

By explaining the idea of the Johari Window to your team, you can help team members understand the value of self-disclosure, and gently encourage people to give and accept feedback. Done sensitively, this can help people build more-trusting relationships with one another, solve issues and work more effectively as a team.

Explaining the Johari Window:The Johari Window model consists of a foursquare grid (think of taking a piece of paper and dividing it into four parts by drawing one line down the middle of the paper from top to bottom, and another line through the middle of the paper from side-to-side). This is shown in the diagram below:

The four quadrants are:

Quadrant 1: Open Area
What is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others.

Quadrant 2: Blind Area, or "Blind Spot"
What is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know. This can be simple information, or can involve deep issues (for example, feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, unworthiness, rejection) which are difficult for individuals to face directly, and yet can be seen by others.

Quadrant 3: Hidden or Avoided Area
What the person knows about him/herself that others do not.

Quadrant 4: Unknown Area
What is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others.

The process of enlarging the open quadrant vertically is called self-disclosure, a give and take process between the person and the people he/she interacts with.

As information is shared, the boundary with the hidden quadrant moves downwards. And as other people reciprocate, trust tends to build between them.

The Johari Window in a Team Context

Keep in mind that established team members will have larger open areas than new team members. New team members start with smaller open areas because little knowledge about the new team member has yet been shared. The size of the Open Area can be expanded horizontally into the blind space, by seeking and actively listening to feedback from other group members.

Group members should strive to assist a team member in expanding their Open Area by offering constructive feedback. The size of the Open Area can also be expanded vertically downwards into the hidden or avoided space by the sender’s disclosure of information, feelings, etc about himself/herself to the group and group members.

Also, group members can help a person expand their Open Area into the hidden area by asking the sender about himself/herself. Managers and team leaders play a key role here, facilitating feedback and disclosure among group members, and by providing constructive feedback to individuals about their own blind areas

Making a Great First Impression!

2007-10-16T00:33:00.000-07:00

Making a Great First Impression!

It takes just a quick glance, maybe three seconds, for someone to evaluate you when you meet for the first time. In this short time, the other person forms an opinion about you based on your appearance, your body language, your demeanor, your mannerisms, and how you are dressed.With every new encounter, you are evaluated and yet another person’s impression of you is formed. These first impression can be nearly impossible to reverse or undo, making those first encounters extremely important, for they set the tone for the all the relationships that follows.So, whether they are in your career or social life, it’s important to know how to create a good first impression. This article provides some useful tips to help you do this.

Be on Time

The person you are meeting for the first time is not interested in your “good excuse” for running late. Plan to arrive a few minutes early. And allow flexibility for possible delays in traffic or taking a wrong turn. Arriving early is much better that arriving late, hands down, and is the first step in creating a great first impression.

Be Yourself, Be at Ease

If you are feeling uncomfortable and on edge, this can make the other person ill at ease and that’s a sure way to create the wrong impression. If you are calm and confident, so the other person will feel more at ease, and so have a solid foundation for making that first impression a good one. See our section on relaxation techniques to find out how to calm that adrenaline!

Present Yourself Appropriately

Of course physical appearance matters. The person you are meeting for the first time does not know you and your appearance is usually the first clue he or she has to go on.But it certainly does not mean you need to look like a model to create a strong and positive first impression. (Unless you are interviewing with your local model agency, of course!)

They say a picture is worth a thousand words, and so the “picture” you first present says much about you to the person you are meeting. Is your appearance saying the right things to help create the right first impression?Start with the way you dress. What is the appropriate dress for the meeting or occasion? In a business setting, what is the appropriate business attire? Suit, blazer, casual? And ask yourself what the person you'll be meeting is likely to wear - if your contact is in advertising or the music industry, a pinstripe business suit may not strike the right note!

For business and social meetings, appropriate dress also varies between countries and cultures, so it’s something that you should pay particular attention to when in an unfamiliar setting or country. Make sure you know the traditions and norms.

And what about your personal grooming? Clean and tidy appearance is appropriate for most business and social occasions. A good haircut or shave. Clean and tidy clothes. Neat and tidy make up. Make sure your grooming is appropriate and helps make you feel “the part”.

Appropriate dressing and grooming help make a good first impression and also help you feel “the part”, and so feel more calm and confident. Add all of this up and you are well on your way to creating a good first impression.

A Word about Individuality

The good news is you can usually create a good impression without total conformity or losing your individuality. Yes, to make a good first impression you do need to “fit in” to some degree. But it all goes back to being appropriate for the situation. If in a business setting, wear appropriate business attire. If at a formal evening social event, wear appropriate evening attire. And express your individuality appropriately within that context.

A Winning Smile!

“Smile and the world smiles too.”* So there’s nothing like a smile to create a good first impression. A warm and confident smile will put both you and the other person at ease. So smiling is a winner when it comes to great first impressions. But don't go overboard with this - people who take this too far can seem insincere and smarmy, or can be seen to be "lightweights".

Be Open and Confident

When it comes to making the first impression, body language as well as appearance speaks much louder than words. Use your body language to project appropriate confidence and self-assurance. Stand tall, smile (of course), make eye contact, greet with a firm handshake. All of this will help you project confidence and encourage both you and the other person feel better at ease.Almost everyone gets a little nervous when meeting someone for the first time, which can lead to nervous habits or sweaty palms. By being aware of your nervous habits, you can try to keep them in check. And controlling a nervous jitter or a nervous laugh will give you confidence and help the other person feel at ease. Again, see our section on relaxation techniques for help with this.

Small Talk Goes A Long Way…

Conversations are based on verbal give and take. It may help you to prepare questions you have for the person you are meeting for the first time beforehand. Or, take a few minutes to learn something about the person you meet for the first time before you get together. For instance, does he play golf? Does she work with a local charitable foundation? Is there anything that you know of that you have in common with the person you are meeting? If so, this can be a great way to open the conversation and to keep it flowing.

Be Positive

Your attitude shows through in everything you do. Project a positive attitude, even in the face of criticism or in the case of nervousness. Strive to learn from your meeting and to contribute appropriately, maintaining an upbeat manner and a smile.
Be Courteous And Attentive

It goes without saying that good manners and polite, attentive and courteous behavior help make a good first impression. In fact, anything less can ruin the one chance you have at making that first impression. So be on your best behavior! One modern manner worth mentioning is “turn off your mobile phone”. What first impression will you create if you are already speaking to someone other than the person you are meeting for the first time? Your new acquaintance deserves 100% of your attention. Anything less and you’ll create a less than good first impression.

Introduction To Communication

2007-10-16T00:29:00.000-07:00

The purpose of communication is to get your message across to others clearly and unambiguously.

Doing this involves effort from both the sender of the message and the receiver. And it's a process that can be fraught with error, with messages often misinterpreted by the recipient. When this isn't detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, wasted effort and missed opportunity.

In fact, communication is only successful when both the sender and the receiver understand the same information as a result of the communication.

With the Mind Tools E-book, you get all of the tools on the Mind Tools site, brought together into one easily downloadable, easy-to-print PDF.

By successfully getting your message across, you convey your thoughts and ideas effectively. When not successful, the thoughts and ideas that you send do not necessarily reflect your own, causing a communications breakdown and creating roadblocks that stand in the way of your goals – both personally and professionally.

In a recent survey of recruiters from companies with more than 50,000 employees, communication skills were cited as the single more important decisive factor in choosing managers. The survey, conducted by the University of Pittsburgh’s Katz Business School, points out that communication skills, including written and oral presentations, as well as an ability to work with others, are the main factor contributing to job success.

In spite of the increasing importance placed on communication skills, many individuals continue to struggle, unable to communicate their thoughts and ideas effectively – whether in verbal or written format. This inability makes it nearly impossible for them to compete effectively in the workplace, and stands in the way of career progression.

Getting your message across is paramount to progressing. To do this, you must understand what your message is, what audience you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You must also weigh-in the circumstances surrounding your communications, such as situational and cultural context.

Communications Skills - The Importance of Removing Barriers:Communication barriers can pop-up at every stage of the communication process (which consists of sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback and context - see the diagram below) and have the potential to create misunderstanding and confusion

To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without misunderstanding and confusion, your goal should be to lessen the frequency of these barriers at each stage of this process with clear, concise, accurate, well-planned communications. We follow the process through below:

Sender...
To establish yourself as an effective communicator, you must first establish credibility. In the business arena, this involves displaying knowledge of the subject, the audience and the context in which the message is delivered.

You must also know your audience (individuals or groups to which you are delivering your message). Failure to understand who you are communicating to will result in delivering messages that are misunderstood.

Message...
Next, consider the message itself. Written, oral and nonverbal communications are effected by the sender’s tone, method of organization, validity of the argument, what is communicated and what is left out, as well as your individual style of communicating. Messages also have intellectual and emotional components, with intellect allowing us the ability to reason and emotion allowing us to present motivational appeals, ultimately changing minds and actions.

Channel...
Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal including face-to-face meetings, telephone and videoconferencing; and written including letters, emails, memos and reports.

Receiver...
These messages are delivered to an audience. No doubt, you have in mind the actions or reactions you hope your message prompts from this audience. Keep in mind, your audience also enters into the communication process with ideas and feelings that will undoubtedly influence their understanding of your message and their response. To be a successful communicator, you should consider these before delivering your message, acting appropriately.

Feedback...
Your audience will provide you with feedback, verbal and nonverbal reactions to your communicated message. Pay close attention to this feedback as it is crucial to ensuring the audience understood your message.

Context...
The situation in which your message is delivered is the context. This may include the surrounding environment or broader culture (i.e. corporate culture, international cultures, etc.).

Removing Barriers At All These Stages

To deliver your messages effectively, you must commit to breaking down the barriers that exist in each of these stages of the communication process.

Let’s begin with the message itself. If your message is too lengthy, disorganized, or contains errors, you can expect the message to be misunderstood and misinterpreted. Use of poor verbal and body language can also confuse the message.

Barriers in context tend to stem from senders offering too much information too fast. When in doubt here, less is oftentimes more. It is best to be mindful of the demands on other people’s time, especially in today’s ultra-busy society. Once you understand this, you need to work to understand your audience’s culture, making sure you can converse and deliver your message to people of different backgrounds and cultures within your own organization, in this country and even abroad.

Improve Your Communication Skills

2007-10-16T00:22:00.000-07:00

Why Communications Skills Are So Important:

The purpose of communication is to get your message across to others. This is a process that involves both the sender of the message and the receiver. This process leaves room for error, with messages often misinterpreted by one or more of the parties involved. This causes unnecessary confusion and counter productivity.

In fact, a message is successful only when both the sender and the receiver perceive it in the same way.

By successfully getting your message across, you convey your thoughts and ideas effectively. When not successful, the thoughts and ideas that you convey do not necessarily reflect your own, causing a communications breakdown and creating roadblocks that stand in the way of your goals – both personally and professionally.

In a recent survey of recruiters from companies with more than 50,000 employees, communication skills were cited as the single more important decisive factor in choosing managers. The survey, conducted by the University of Pittsburgh’s Katz Business School, points out that communication skills, including written and oral presentations, as well as an ability to work with others, are the main factor contributing to job success.

In spite of the increasing importance placed on communication skills, many individuals continue to struggle with this, unable to communicate their thoughts and ideas effectively – whether in verbal or written format. This inability makes it nearly impossible for them to compete effectively in the workplace, and stands in the way of career progression.

Getting your message across is paramount to progressing. To do this, you must understand what your message is, what audience you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You must also weigh-in the circumstances surrounding your communications, such as situational and cultural context.

Regardless of what size business you are in – a large corporation, a small company, or even a home-based business – effective communication skills are essential for success.

The articles in this section of Mind Tools help you to understand effective communication, and then show you how to communicate your message in the best possible way. After completing this section, you should have a better understanding of how to communicate effectively – to individuals and groups, via spoken communications, written communications, and even electronic communications.

These include other important sections that help you be the best you can be, courses, book reviews and more. Take a look around this Communications Skills section of the Mind Tools web site, and then take the time to view other sections, all researched and written by the Mind Tools staff, who share a strong commitment to helping you achieve lifelong success and happiness.

Find out what you need to know about Communication Skills in the articles below.

Introduction to Communication Skills - Why You Must Get Your Message Across

Making a Great First Impression

The Johari Window - Helping People Understand One-Another

Better Public Speaking - Ensure Your Words Are Always Understood

Writing Skills - Before You Write It Down, Know This

Effective Email - Communicate Clearly in the Technology Age

Ice Breakers - Setting the Scene for Productive Meetings

Running Productive Meetings

Win-Win Negotiation

Speaking to an Audience - Communicate Complex Ideas Successfully

Active Listening - Hear What People Are Really Saying

Presentation Planning Checklist

Guest Article: Ten Tips for Effective Email

Ecological Model of the Communication Process

2007-10-15T04:08:00.000-07:00

Existing models of the communication process don't provide a reasonable basis for understanding such effects. Indeed, there are many things that we routinely teach undergraduates in introductory communication courses that are missing from, or outright inconsistent with, these models. Consider that:

*we now routinely teach students that "receivers" of messages really "consume" messages. People usually have a rich menu of potential messages to choose from and they select the messages they want to hear in much the same way that diners select entrees from a restaurant menu. We teach students that most "noise" is generated within the listener, that we engage messages through "selective attention", that one of the most important things we can do to improve our communication is to learn how to listen, that mass media audiences have choices, and that we need to be "literate" in our media choices, even in (and perhaps especially in) our choice of television messages. Yet all of these models suggest an "injection model" in which message reception is automatic.

* we spend large portions of our introductory courses teaching students about the importance of perception, attribution, and relationships to our interpretation of messages; of the importance of communication to the perceptions that others have of us, the perceptions we have of ourselves, and the creation and maintenence of the relationships we have with others. These models say nothing about the role of perception and relationshp to the way we interpret messages or our willingness to consume messages from different people.

*when we use these models in teaching courses in both interpersonal and mass communication; in teaching students about very different kinds of media. With the exception of the Shannon model, we tend to use these models selectively in describing those media, and without any strong indication of where the medium begins or ends; without any indication of how media interrelate with languages, messages, or the people who create and consume messages.without addressing the ways in which they are . while these media describe, in a generalized way, media,

The ecological model of communication, shown in Figure 6, attempts to provide a platform on which these issues can be explored. It asserts that communication occurs in the intersection of four fundamental constructs: communication between people (creators and consumers) is mediated by messages which are created using language within media; consumed from media and interpreted using language.This model is, in many ways, a more detailed elaboration of Lasswell's (1948) classic outline of the study of communication: "Who ... says what ... in which channel ... to whom ... with what effect". In the ecological model , the "who" are the creators of messages, the "says what" are the messages, the "in which channel" is elaborated into languages (which are the content of channels) and media (which channels are a component of), the "to whom" are the consumers of messages, and the effects are found in various relationships between the primitives, including relationships, perspectives, attributions, interpretations, and the continuing evolution of languages and media.

A number of relationships are described in this model:

*Messages are created and consumed using language.

* Language occurs within the context of media

*Messages are constructed and consumed within the context of media.

* The roles of consumer and creator are reflexive. People become creators when they reply or supply feedback to other people. Creators become consumers when they make use of feedback to adapt their messages to message consumers. People learn how to create messages through the act of consuming other peoples messages.

*The roles of consumer and creator are introspective. Creators of messages create messages within the context of their perspectives of and relationships with anticipated consumers of messages. Creators optimize their messages to their target audiences. Consumers of messages interpret those messages within the context of their perspectives of, and relationships with, creators of messages. Consumers make attributions of meaning based on their opinion of the message creator. People form these perspectives and relationships as a function of their communication.

*The messages creators of messages construct are necessarily imperfect representations of the meaning they imagine. Messages are created within the expressive limitations of the medium selected and the meaning representation space provided by the language used. The message created is almost always a partial and imperfect representation of what the creator would like to say.

*A consumers interpretation of a messages necessarily attributes meaning imperfectly. Consumers intepret messages within the limits of the languages used and the media those languages are used in. A consumers interpretation of a message may be very different than what the creator of a message imagined.

*People learn language by through the experience of encountering language being used within media. The languages they learn will almost always be the languages when communicating with people who already know and use those languages. That communication always occurs within a medium that enables those languages.

*People learn media by using media. The media they learn will necessarilly be the media used by the people they communicate with.

*People invent and evolve languages. While some behavior expressions (a baby's cry) occur naturally and some aspects of language structure may mirror the ways in which the brain structures ideas, language does not occur naturally. People invent new language when there is no language that they can be socialized into. People evolve language when they need to communicate ideas that existing language is not sufficient to.

*People invent and evolve media While some of the modalities and channels associated with communication are naturally occurring, the media we use to communicate are not.

Transactional Model

2007-10-15T04:06:00.001-07:00

This model acknowledges neither creators nor consumers of messages, preferring to label the people associated with the model as communicators who both create and consume messages. The model presumes additional symmetries as well, with each participant creating messages that are received by the other communicator. This is, in many ways, an excellent model of the face-to-face interactive process which extends readily to any interactive medium that provides users with symmetrical interfaces for creation and consumption of messages, including notes, letters, C.B. Radio, electronic mail, and the radio. It is, however, a distinctly interpersonal model that implies an equality between communicators that often doesn't exist, even in interpersonal contexts. The caller in most telephone conversations has the initial upper hand in setting the direction and tone of a a telephone callr than the receiver of the call (Hopper, 1992).In face-to-face head-complement interactions, the boss (head) has considerably more freedom (in terms of message choice, media choice, ability to frame meaning, ability to set the rules of interaction) and power to allocate message bandwidth than does the employee (complement). The model certainly does not apply in mass media contexts.

The "masspersonal" (xxxxx, 199x) media of the Internet through this implied symmetry into even greater relief. Most Internet media grant everyone symmetrical creation and consumption interfaces. Anyone with Internet access can create a web site and participate as an equal partner in e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, computer conferences, collaborative composition sites, blogs, interactive games, MUDs, MOOs, and other media. It remains, however, that users have very different preferences in their message consumption and creation. Some people are very comfortable creating messages for others online. Others prefer to "lurk"; to freely browse the messages of others without adding anything of their own. Adding comments to a computer conference is rarely more difficult than sending an e-mail, but most Internet discussion groups have many more lurkers (consumers of messages that never post) than they have contributors (people who both create and consume messages). Oddly, the lurkers sometimes feel more integrated with the community than the contributors do (Baym, 2000).

Derivative Models of the Communication Process

2007-10-15T04:02:00.000-07:00

One of these shortcomings is addressed in Figure 2's intermediary model of communication (sometimes referred to as the gatekeeper model or two-step flow (Katz, 1957)). This model, which is frequently depicted in introductory texts in mass communication, focuses on the important role that intermediaries often play in the communication process. Mass communication texts frequently specifically associate editors, who decide what stories will fit in a newspaper or news broadcast, with this intermediary or gatekeeper role. There are, however, many intermediary roles (Foulger, 2002a) associated with communication. Many of these intermediaries have the ability to decide what messages others see, the context in which they are seen, and when they see them. They often have the ability, moreover, to change messages or to prevent them from reaching an audience (destination). In extreme variations we refer to such gatekeepers as censors. Under the more normal conditions of mass media, in which publications choose some content in preference to other potential content based on an editorial policy, we refer to them as editors (most mass media), moderators (Internet discussion groups), reviewers (peer-reviewed publications), or aggregators (clipping services), among other titles . Delivery workers (a postal delivery worker, for instance) also act as intermediaries, and have the ability to act as gatekeepers, but are generally restricted from doing so as a matter of ethics and/or law.

gatekeeper model are also used in teaching organizational communication, where gatekeepers, in the form of bridges and liaisons, have some ability to shape the organization through their selective sharing of information. These variations are generally more complex in depiction and often take the form of social network diagrams that depict the interaction relationships of dozens of people. They network diagrams often presume, or at least allow, bi-directional arrows such that they are more consistent with the notion that communication is most often bidirectional.

The bidirectionality of communication is commonly addressed in interpersonal communication text with two elaborations of Shannon's model (which is often labeled as the action model of communication): the interactive model and the transactive model. The interactive model, a variant of which is shown in Figure 4, elaborates Shannon's model with the cybernetic concept of feedback (Weiner, 1948, 1986), often (as is the case in Figure 4) without changing any other element of Shannon's model. The key concept associated with this elaboration is that destinations provide feedback on the messages they receive such that the information sources can adapt their messages, in real time. This is an important elaboration, and as generally depicted, a radically oversimplified one. Feedback is a message (or a set of messages). The source of feedback is an information source. The consumer of feedback is a destination. Feedback is transmitted, received, and potentially disruptable via noise sources. None of this is visible in the typical depiction of the interactive model. This doesn't diminish the importance of feedback or the usefulness of elaborating Shannon's model to include it. People really do adapt their messages based on the feedback they receive. It is useful, however, to notice that the interactive model depicts feedback at a much higher level of abstraction than it does messages.

Shannon's Model

2007-10-15T03:57:00.001-07:00

Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process is, in important ways, the beginning of the modern field. It provided, for the first time, a general model of the communication process that could be treated as the common ground of such diverse disciplines as journalism, rhetoric, linguistics, and speech and hearing sciences. Part of its success is due to its structuralist reduction of communication to a set of basic constituents that not only explain how communication happens, but why communication sometimes fails. Good timing played a role as well. The world was barely thirty years into the age of mass radio, had arguably fought a world war in its wake, and an even more powerful, television, was about to assert itself. It was time to create the field of communication as a unified discipline, and Shannon's model was as good an excuse as any. The model's enduring value is readily evident in introductory textbooks. It remains one of the first things most students learn about communication when they take an introductory communication class. Indeed, it is one of only a handful of theoretical statements about the communication process that can be found in introductory textbooks in both mass communication and interpersonal communication.

Shannon's model, as shown in Figure 1, breaks the process of communication down into eight discrete components

*An information source. Presumably a person who creates a message.

*The message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the destination.

*A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an audio signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through the telephone network. Transmission is readily generalized within Shannon's information theory to encompass a wide range of transmitters. The simplest transmission system, that associated with face-to-face communication, has at least two layers of transmission. The first, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture), create and modulate a signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a channel, is built of the air (sound) and light (gesture) that enable the transmission of those signals from one person to another. A television broadcast would obviously include many more layers, with the addition of cameras and microphones, editing and filtering systems, a national signal distribution network (often satellite), and a local radio wave broadcast antenna.

*The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is the case in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal systems that depend on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio waves, or words and pictures in a book.

*A carrier or channel, which is represented by the small unlabeled box in the middle of the model. The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and postal systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the multiple layers of transmission, as described above.

*Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried. Given Shannon's focus on telephone transmission, carriers, and reception, it should not be surprising that noise is restricted to noise that obscures or obliterates some portion of the signal within the channel. This is a fairly restrictive notion of noise, by current standards, and a somewhat misleading one. Today we have at least some media which are so noise free that compressed signals are constructed with an absolutely minimal amount information and little likelihood of signal loss. In the process, Shannon's solution to noise, redundancy, has been largely replaced by a minimally redundant solution: error detection and correction. Today we use noise more as a metaphor for problems associated with effective listening.

*A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face to face communication a set of ears (sound) and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers of receiver, including an antenna and a television set.

*A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message

Shannon's model isn't really a model of communication, however. It is, instead, a model of the flow of information through a medium, and an incomplete and biased model that is far more applicable to the system it maps, a telephone or telegraph, than it is to most other media. It suggests, for instance, a "push" model in which sources of information can inflict it on destinations. In the real world of media, destinations are more typically self-selecting "consumers" of information who have the ability to select the messages they are most interested in, turn off messages that don't interest them, focus on one message in preference to other in message rich environments, and can choose to simply not pay attention. Shannon's model depicts transmission from a transmitter to a receiver as the primary activity of a medium. In the real world of media, messages are frequently stored for elongated periods of time and/or modified in some way before they are accessed by the "destination". The model suggests that communication within a medium is frequently direct and unidirectional, but in the real world of media, communication is almost never unidirectional and is often indirect.

Models of the Communication Process

2007-10-15T03:49:00.001-07:00

We teach the same models of communication today that we taught forty years ago. This can and should be regarded as a mark of the enduring value of these models in highlighting key elements of that process for students who are taking the process apart for the first time. It remains, however, that the field of communication has evolved considerably since the 1960's, and it may be appropriate to update our models to account for that evolution. This paper presents the classic communication models that are taught in introducing students to interpersonal communication and mass communication, including Shannon's information theory model (the active model), a cybernetic model that includes feedback (the interactive model, an intermediary model (sometimes referred to as a gatekeeper model of the two-step flow), and the transactive model. It then introduces a new ecological model of communication that, it is hoped, more closely maps to the the range of materials we teach and research in the field of communication today. This model attempts to capture the fundamental interaction of language, medium, and message that enables communication, the socially constructed aspects of each element, and the relationship of creators and consumers of messages both to these elements and each other.

Introduction

While the field of communication has changed considerably over the last thirty years, the models used in the introductory chapters of communication textbooks (see Adler, 1991; Adler, Rosenfeld, and Towne, 1996; Barker and Barker, 1993; Becker and Roberts, 1992; Bittner, 1996; Burgoon, Hunsaker, and Dawson, 1994; DeFleur, Kearney, and Plax, 1993; DeVito, 1994; Gibson and Hanna, 1992; Wood, 2002) are the same models that were used forty years ago. This is, in some sense, a testament to their enduring value. Shannon's (1948) model of the communication process (Figure 1) provides, in its breakdown of the flow of a message from source to destination, an excellent breakdown of the elements of the communication process that can be very helpful to students who are thinking about how they communicate with others. It remains, however, that these texts generally treat these models as little more than a baseline. They rapidly segue into other subjects that seem more directly relevant to our everyday experience of communication. In interpersonal communication texts these subjects typically include the social construction of the self, perception of self and other, language, nonverbal communication, listening, conflict management, intercultural communication, relational communication, and various communication contexts, including work and family. In mass communication texts these subjects typically include media literacy, media and culture, new media, media industries, media audiences, advertising, public relations, media effects, regulation, and media ethics.

There was a time when our communication models provided a useful graphical outline of a semesters material. This is no longer the case. This paper presents the classic models that we use in teaching communication, including Shannon's information theory model (the active model), a cybernetic model that includes feedback (the interactive model, an intermediary model (sometimes referred to as a gatekeeper model of the two-step flow), and the transactive model. Few textbooks cover all of these models together. Mass Communication texts typically segue from Shannon's model to a two-step flow or gatekeeper model. Interpersonal texts typically present Shannon's model as the "active" model of the communication process and then elaborate it with interactive (cybernetic) and transactive models. Here we will argue the value of update these models to better account for the way we teach these diverse subject matters, and present a unifying model of the communication process that will be described as an ecological model of the communication process. This model seeks to better represent the structure and key constituents of the communication process as we teach it today.

Models of the Communication Process

* Shannon's Model of the Communication Process

* Derivative Models of the Communication Process

* Interactive Model of the Communication Process

* Transactional Model of the Communication Process

* Ecological Model of the Communication Process

Definitions of communication

2007-10-15T03:29:00.000-07:00

Definitions of communication

"Any act by which one person gives to or receives from another person information about that person's needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states. Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or nonlinguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes."

" A connection allowing access between persons or places; "how many lines of communication can there be among four people?"; "a secret passageway provided communication between the two rooms"

"Communication allows people to exchange thoughts by one of several methods. There are auditory means, such as speaking or singing, and physical means, such as sign language, touch, or eye contact".

for information theory, "communication is a process in which the state at a transmitter, a source of information, is reproduced with some errors at a receiver. The errors are caused by noise in the communications channel".

"The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information through speech, signals, writing, or behavior".

"Communication is a movement of matter or energy between two parts of the universe. This matter or energy can be a carrier of information".

"The movement of data from one part of a system to another. Local communication is the movement of data between the processor and memory; global communication is the movement of data from one node to another".